AUC Academic Conference 'From Virtual to Reality' The University of
Queensland 1996AUC Academic Conference 'From Virtual to Reality' The University of
Queensland 1996
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Paper Title:
Students' Understanding of Moving Visual Images in Interactive Multimedia
Presenter:
Dr Carmel McNaught, La Trobe University
Authors:
Dr Carmel McNaught, La Trobe University,
A/Prof. Peter McTigue & A/Prof. Peter Tregloan,
The University of Melbourne
Keywords: Images, Science
Faculty area: Science
Introduction
Interactive multimedia provides the possibility of providing a different set of images about chemistry to students. Many programs now provide images of rotating molecules, animations of pathways in chemical reactions, visualisations of thermodynamic concepts, etc. Presenting animations in QuickTime format gives added student control and allows students to replay some of all of an animation or to scroll through the entire sequence. Video clips of laboratory, industrial or environmental situations are often added to instructional material. New software promises to make three-dimensional explorations of the structure of matter a reality in the near future. In particular, the possibilities of using QuickTime VR and QuickDraw 3D will allow us to give students simulated experiences of the internal structures of the states of matter. All this is exciting but there is little research into how students interpret these moving images as they work through the instructional material. This paper presents the findings of research during 1992-1995 into students' perceptions of a series of animations and videos used in first year chemistry at The University of Melbourne.
Context
ChemCAL is an interactive computer-based tutorial package for the teaching of introductory and first year tertiary chemistry, developed at The University of Melbourne. ChemCAL software was prepared using TutorialTools, a HyperCard-based application, Macromedia animations & QuickTime movies. ChemCAL uses on-screen video and animations, a range of question formats and three levels of direct response to students; it also has built-in logging that provides two-way feedback to both students and course supervisors. All ChemCAL modules share the following characteristics:
- There is a high level of interactivity coupled with detailed assistance available to students as they seek the answers to the questions posed.
- There is very little straight didactic material.
- There is a large amount of visual material present in the modules as animations and video clips, designed to help students develop their own mental models of the central concepts of chemistry.
Approximately 60 hours of instructional material have been developed to date.
The development of the visual material has involved several different formative evaluation strategies. These include
- the use of expert review panels with representation from the areas of chemistry and educational design;
- interviewing students about their understanding and interpretation of visual material;
- the use of an option whereby students can post comments about any screen; and
- examining computer-generated log files of student usage of the materials.
Full accounts of the ongoing evaluation of ChemCAL project have been reported (e.g. McNaught et al., 1995; McTigue et al., 1995). This paper will focus on students' interaction with and understanding of the moving visual images.
Imagination and images
Atoms, molecules, bonds, orbitals, reaction, energy. Understanding these and other basic concepts in chemistry requires much more imaginative, personal, mental picture-making than is often acknowledged.
A valuable way to consider this process is to examine the role of metaphors or analogies in the formation of concepts. Hesse (1963) considers that analogies are essential to the process of developing scientific theories. The process of matching mental models with experimental observations can involve positive, negative or neutral analogies. Collins & Gentner (1987) have produced a elegant description of how individuals select and combine analogies in quite different ways to produce their own unique working explanations of evaporation.
Kosslyn & Swartz (1978) consider that images are constructed using both perceptual and conceptual information. A student's perception of the material on the screen is integrated with material retrieved from long-term memory. This integration process occurs in active (short-term) memory. Viewing an image is thus a cognitive as well as a perceptual experience. The experience results in changes in underlying conceptual structures.
Laurillard (1993) describes a teaching and learning model containing the four aspects of discussion, interaction, adaptation and reflection. She argues that the use of multimedia can enhance the teaching-learning process effectively by facilitating 'conversations' between students and instructional material. These conversations can be intrapersonal (talking with oneself) and well as interpersonal discussions with teachers or other students. The idea of conversations involves processing both visual and language cues. So, the relationship between spoken and written language and visual material needs to be considered in understanding the complexities of learning.
Vygotsky (e.g. 1986 translation) discusses dialogue as a mediating process in the blending of intuitive or 'spontaneous' concepts with formal taught 'scientific' concepts to form coherent conceptual frameworks. The uniqueness of an individual's conceptual structure comes partly from the way in which social, interpersonal communication links with the intrapersonal dialogues one has with oneself. Vygotsky descibes the dialogical character of learning as occurring within the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Here the weaknesses of personal spontaneous reasoning are compensated by the strengths of scientific logic. This meeting of one's inner and outer worlds is essential for learning and is mediated by language. In this sense, learning is cumulative; as one's rich store of psychological associations with a particular concept grows, so does the understanding of the concept.
The implications of this for multimedia design are that the visual material chosen should provide triggers which facilitate a rich exploration of associations with previous experience and current discussions. Simple, clear triggers for understanding abstract and complex concepts-herein lies the main challenge. The more complex the concept, the more difficult it is to represent simply; hence compromises are made (Ben-Zvi, Eylon & Silberstein, 1987). There is some evidence in the literature that pictures in school text books may not universally be of value to learners, e.g. Bottrill & Lock (1993) working in the UK and Schollum (1984) working in New Zealand. In their studies, the pictures used were not as clear as the text, and may reinforce or create unhelpful conceptions. Obviously we need to make sure that the same mistakes are not made with multimedia. One strategy which can be used is to employ multiple representations of phenomena so that learners are provided with more than one set of images to work with (Thomason, Cumming & Zangari, 1994, p. 72).
Diary of a developer
Below are selections from a collection of experience with the ChemCAL project over four years-1992 to 1995. The interviews were mostly informal chats when the first author dropped into the Chemistry computer laboratory. The advantage of observing and sometimes then discussing students' activity with the visual material in a natural setting is discussed by Fritze & McNaught (1996) in this volume. There were several post session interviews, some with computer logs, some in pairs. These more formal interviews provided opportunities for probing students' understanding in depth; however, the effect of prior experience was present.
The strength of this diary approach is that the immediacy of the interaction provides a genuine perception. Its weakness is that perceptions change and so the views of other students at other times are needed. A compilation of a diary over time provides a rich source of experience.
Most of the examples chosen are animations designed to model abstract concepts-either intanglibles such as energy, or mathematical ideas such as the solution to a wave equation. A summary of students' comments is given for each example. In the paper a screen dump of part of the animation is given; the full animation will be shown in the conference presentation. A summary of interpretations of this experience is then given in the hope that it will be of use to other developers.
1. Using experimental data to focus on principles, e.g. spectrometer
Figure 1 Principle of the spectrometer
Figure 2 A spectrum of a titration
Comments:
Students varied as to whether they read the text or not (No-one read the red print!). The association in general between the colour of the solution and the shape of the spectrum was usually not noticed unless students studied the examples in Figure 1 several times. Many commented that they only understood the idea when they viewed the titration in Figure 2-which they had done in the laboratory. So, this was not easy; students felt they worked hard to understand this concept and had difficulty articulating their understanding. But all students who could describe the principle clearly attributed their understanding to the experience of the animations.
2. Developing models of experimental processes, e.g. the process of titration
Figure 3 Animated overview of titration
Figure 4 Activity using video to design an experimental process
Comments:
Research (Grant et al., 1995) clearly show that students' poor performance in titration is due to their inability to see each step of the procedure in context. Figure 3 is an animated overview of titration at the beginning of the titration module which we hoped would provide a frame for the following activities. Students do not study it in detail; maybe they get a sense of a process but the labels of what is 'known' and what is 'unknown' at each stage are not seen as providing in-depth triggers. Figure 4 has some fairly indifferent video as part of a sorting activity. However, the activity provides a suitable focus; students study the video carefully and value this screen.
3. Links between equipment, molecular activity and graphical descriptions, e.g. gas laws
Figure 5 Animation for Boyle's Law
Comments:
Here the use of molecules added to a diagrammatic version of experimental apparatus provides one set of associations. Another link is provided to the graphical representation. A similar format is used in aminations of other gas laws in the same module. This use of multiple representations seems to enable students to be able to link the physical, molecular and mathematical aspects of the topic. A similar animation is used later in the semester and students in that session commented that this was reinforcing.
4. Visualisations of mathematical entities, e.g. orbitals
Figure 6 Visualisations of orbital hybridisation
Comments:
If students study each of the animations, they could spend several minutes on this screen. Many students just filled in the table. Other students compared the animations with small stick models. So, students approach this material in many ways. They all appreciated the summary activity of the table. In all discussions students gave examples of small molecules with shapes that are congruent with this orbital desciption. This is interesting as examples are not mentioned in this section of the module. Students demonstrate understanding by making these linking comments.
5. Visualisations of metaphors, e.g. lock and key functioning of enzymes
Figure 7 Animation of a 'lock and key' metaphor
Comments:
Metaphors are an integral part of our way of understanding the world. Sutton (1981) analyses many scientific metaphors used in English, showing how they arise as learners attempt to make meaning. Science has many examples-'messenger' ribonucleic acid, 'cells' and the 'lock and key' explanation for enzyme and substrate. This extremely simple animation was considered helpful by most students. Many were confused by the concept in biology as well as in chemistry and this may have provided additional motivation. There was no focussing question but the context was such that many students had already articulated their own confusion. Simple animations can be very effective if they are appropriate.
Advice to developers
Students do find the use of animations and video helpful. They may not use them to their full potential but students can describe clearly how good visual material facilitates their learning. It is worth the effort!
Consideration of complexity. How much can students be expected to process? Is the material congruent with what they have already experienced? These questions are central to good design.
Use of multiple representations in design. Providing students with more than one way of processing information is very helpful. Multiple representations also link abstract and real life aspects of a topic.
The problem or activity which students engage with is vital. This can be provided by the context of the course or the design of the particular question format.
Linking between animations. Using a similar design again or repeating the material in a later module provides definite reinforcement and students seem more able to integrate detail.
Balance between the potential of the technology and the pragmatics of the delivery context. How much time do students have to study the material? Pressure of time is a real issue which is clear in on-campus delivery; however, one can estimate student load and pace in this context. As off-campus delivery of multimedia (e.g. on the Web) becomes increasingly common, this will become an even more crucial issue.
Need for evaluation as an ongoing feature of development. We have changed much of the ChemCAL visual material as a result of evaluation. This is a continuous process. Locking onself too early into elaborate animations which are costly to alter is problematic.
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Acknowledgements
Dr David Hassett and Matt Coller provided technical assistance with several of the animations. Financial assistance for ChemCAL has been provided by the Committee for the Advancement of University Teaching (CAUT) and The University of Melbourne.
References
Ben-Zvi R., Eylon, B.-S., & Silberstein, J. (1987). Students' visualisation of a chemical reaction. Education in Chemistry, 24, 117-120.
Bottrill, J. & Lock, R. (1993). Do students learn more from pictures or from text?-A pilot study. School Science Review, 74(269), 109-112.
Collins, A. & Gentner, D. (1987). How people construct mental models. pp. 243-265 in D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.). Cultural models in language and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fritze, P. A. & McNaught, C. (1996). VisMap-A CD for exploring evaluation issues in computer facilitated learning In Proceedings of the Apple University Consortium Academic Conference, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 24-27 September.
Grant, H., McNaught, C., Fritze, F., Barton, J., McTigue, P., & Prosser, R. (1995). The effectiveness of computer assisted learning in the teaching of quantitative volumetric analysis skills in a first year university course. Journal of Chemical Education, 72(11), 1003-1007.
Hesse, M.B. 1963. Models and analogies in science. Newman History and Philosophy of Science Series, no. 14. London: Sheed and Ward.
Kosslyn, S. M. & Swartz, S. P. (1978). Visual images as spatial representations in active memory. pp. 223-41 in A. Hanson & E. Riseman (Eds.). Computer vision systems. New York: Academic Press.
Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the effective use of eduational technology. London: Routledge.
McNaught, C., McTigue, P.T., Fritze, P.A., Tregloan, P. A., Hassett, D., Whithear, K., & Browning, G. (1995). Evaluating the impact of technology on student learning in higher education. pp. 195-206 in Proceedings of the Apple University Consortium Academic Conference, Perth, 3-6 July.
McTigue, P.T., Tregloan, P. A., Fritze, P.A., McNaught, C., Hassett, D., & Porter, Q. (1995). Interactive teaching and testing tutorials for first year tertiary chemistry. pp. 466-471 in H. Maurer (Ed.). Educational multimedia and hypermedia, 1995. Proceedings of Ed-Media 95-World conference on Educational Multimedia & Hypermedia, Graz, Austria, 17-21 June.
Schollum, B. (1984). What children think about matter. Chemistry New Zealand, 24, 3-15.
Sutton, C. (1981). Metaphorical imagery: A means of coping with complex and unfamiliar information in science. Durham and Newcastle Research Review, 9(46), 216-222.
Thomason, N. Cumming, G. & Zangari, M. (1994). Understanding central concepts of statistics and experimental design in the social sciences. pp. 59-81 in Beattie, K., McNaught, C., & Wills, S. (Eds.). Interactive multimedia in university education: Designing for change in teaching and learning. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Dr Carmel McNaught,
Academic Development Unit,
La Trobe University, Bundoora 3083Phone +61 3 9479 1944
Fax +61 3 9479 2996Email: C.McNaught@latrobe.edu.au
WWW http://www.adu.latrobe.edu.au/
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